A large number of ethnicities have inhabited Mongolia since prehistoric times. Most of these people were nomads who, from time to time, formed confederations that rose to prominence. The first of these, the Xiongnu, were brought together to form a confederation by Modun Shanyu in 209 BC.

In 1206, Chinggis Khan (also known as Genghis Khan) founded the Mongol Empire, the largest empire in history. The Mongol Empire’s territory extended from present-day Poland in the west to the Korean peninsula in the east, from Siberia in the north to the Arab peninsula and Vietnam in the south, covering approximately 33 million square kilometers. In 1227, after Chinggis Khan’s death, the Mongol Empire was subdivided into four kingdoms. In 1260, Chinggis Khan’s grandson, Kublai Khan, ascended the throne of one of the four kingdoms that encompassed present-day Mongolia and China. In 1271, Kublai Khan formally established the Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan Dynasty was the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China until it was overthrown by the Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1368.

The Mongol court returned to its native land, however, centuries of internal conflict, expansion and contraction brought them fall into Manchu Qing dynasty. They conquered Inner Mongolia in 1636. Outer Mongolia was submitted in 1691. For the next two hundred years Mongolia was ruled by the Qing Dynasty until 1911. Mongolia declared its independence in 1911 under the Bogd Khan, the spiritual leader of Mongolia’s Tibetan Buddhism. However, the Chinese government still considered “Outer Mongolia” as part of it and invaded the country in 1919.

In 1921, People’s Revolution won in Mongolia with the help of the Russian Red Army and thus Mongolia became the second socialist country in the world. After Bogd Khan’s death in 1924, the Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed and the first Constitution was adopted.

Mongolia was under a Soviet-dominated Communist regime for almost 70 years, from 1921 to 1990. In the fall of 1989 and the spring of 1990, new currents of political thought began to emerge in Mongolia, inspired by the glasnost and perestroika in the Soviet Union and the collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe. In March 1990, a democratic revolution that started with hunger strikes to overthrow the Government led to the peaceful renouncement of communism. Mongolia’s renouncement of communism led to a multi-party system, a new constitution and a transition to a market economy.

Over the past three decades, Mongolia has transformed itself from a socialist country with a planned economy into a vibrant multi-party democracy with one of the world’s fastest growing economies.

Some key dates in Mongolia’s history:

1206-63 – Genghis Khan unites Mongol tribes and launches a campaign of conquest which eventually results in the world’s biggest land empire.

1267-1368 – Weakened by disunity, the empire implodes. Ming troops oust the Mongols from Dadu – present-day Beijing.

1380 – The Golden Horde is defeated by the Russian Prince Dmitriy Donskoy. Ming troops destroy the Mongol capital, Karakorum.

1636 – The Manchu (Qing) empire conquers the southern Mongols, creating Inner Mongolia.

1691 – The Qing empire offers protection to the northern Mongols, creating Outer Mongolia.

1727 – The Treaty of Kyakhta fixes the western border between the Russian and Manchu empires, confirming Qing dominion over Mongolia and Tuva.

1911 – The Qing dynasty falls and Outer Mongolia declares its independence. Russia and the Republic of China recognise its autonomy.

1919 – The Chinese army occupies Outer Mongolia.

1921 – With Red Army support, Mongolian revolutionaries drive out Chinese and Tsarist forces and install the Mongolian “people’s government”.

1924 – The People’s Party chooses Lenin’s “road to socialism bypassing capitalism” and renames itself the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The Mongolian People’s Republic is proclaimed.

1937 – Mongolian Prime Minister Genden is arrested in the USSR and shot for spying for Japan. The Minister of War Marshal Demid is poisoned aboard a Trans-Siberian train. Monasteries are destroyed and lamas murdered.

1939 – Mongolian and Soviet troops commanded by General Zhukov defeat an invasion by Japanese and Manchukuo forces in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol/Nomonhan.

1945-46 – Yalta conference agrees to preserve the status quo – Soviet control – in Mongolia. Mongolians vote for independence in a UN plebiscite. Mongolia is recognised by the Republic of China.

1966 – Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signs a friendship treaty allowing secret stationing of Soviet troops in Mongolia.

1986 – A key speech by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Vladivostokh opens the way to detente with China and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia.

1990 – Mongolia holds its first free multiparty elections.

2002 – Dalai Lama visits. China denounces trip and warns Mongolian leaders not to meet the Tibetan spiritual leader.

2005 – President George W Bush becomes the first serving US leader to visit Mongolia.

Culture

Mongolian culture is deeply rooted in its nomadic heritage, with a strong emphasis on horsemanship, animal husbandry, and a close connection to nature. Buddhism, shamanism, and animism all play significant roles in Mongolian beliefs and practices. Key cultural elements include the deel (traditional clothing), ger (yurts), the “Three Games of Men” (wrestling, archery, and horseracing), and a strong sense of hospitality and respect for elders.

The nomadic pastoral way of life has had a significant impact on Mongolian culture, influencing everything from the country’s social relationships and family structures to its art, music, and literature. Mongolian culture is also well known for its traditional arts, which include music, dance, and literature. The country’s music and dance traditions are closely connected to its nomadic past and are an important part of its cultural heritage. Mongolian literature, on the other hand, has a long and varied history, and includes both oral and written traditions.

Mongolian culture is also known for its distinctive architectural style, which reflects the country’s nomadic tradition and its harsh weather during the winter months and rugged landscape. Mongolian homes or known as “ger” circular in shape and are constructed using a variety of materials including felt and wooden parts. The interior of a traditional Mongolian “ger” is portable and can be easily dismantled and reassembled, making them well-suited to the nomadic lifestyle.

In addition to its traditional architecture, Mongolian culture is also known for its handicrafts and folk art. Mongolian folk art includes a wide range of crafts and decorative arts, such as woodcarving, metalworking, embroidery, and weaving. These crafts are often passed down from generation to generation and are an important part of the country’s cultural heritage. Mongolian handicrafts and folk art are often sold as souvenirs to tourists and are an important source of income for many Mongolian families.

Mongolian culture is also strongly influenced by its equestrian and wrestling traditions, which have played a central role in the country’s history and continue to be an important part of its cultural identity today. In addition to these cultural traditions, Mongolia is home to a number of festivals and celebrations that reflect the country’s rich cultural heritage, including the Naadam Festival and Tsagaan Sar, which is a national holidays that celebrates Mongolian culture and history.